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 Posted: Thu, 08 Apr 2004 23:00:24 Post Subject: Teaching |
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Teaching
Article Outline
Introduction; History of Teaching; Teaching in the United States; Teaching in Other Nations
I Introduction
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Teaching, systematic presentation of facts, ideas, skills, and techniques to students. Although human beings have survived and evolved as a species partly because of a capacity to share knowledge, teaching as a profession did not emerge until relatively recently. The societies of the ancient world that made substantial advances in knowledge and government, however, were those in which specially designated people assumed responsibility for educating the young.
II History of Teaching
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In ancient India, China, Egypt, and Judea, teaching was often performed by a priest or prophet, and the teacher enjoyed prestige and privilege. Among the Jews, many adults considered teachers the guides to salvation and urged children to honor their teachers even more than their parents.
The ancient Greeks, whose respect for learning is evident in their art, politics, and philosophy, saw the value in educating children (see Ancient Greece). Wealthy Greeks added teachers to their households, often slaves from conquered states. At the height of the Roman Empire, during the first five centuries ad, Roman citizens also followed the practice of having teacher-slaves, usually Greeks. The English word pedagogue, a synonym for teacher, comes directly from the Greek word for slave.
By the Middle Ages in Europe (5th century to 15th century), the Roman Catholic Church had taken over the responsibility for teaching, which was conducted in monasteries and specially designated learning centers. Many of these learning centers evolved gradually into major universities, such as the Universities of Paris in France, and the University of Bologna, in Italy. In the 17th and 18th centuries, interest in the education of children intensified among Europeans, and knowledge about teaching methods increased. French cleric and educator Saint John Baptist de la Salle, and later Swiss education reformer Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, founded model schools for young people. They also made significant advances in education by training other teachers in their educational theories and methods (see Teacher Training).
In North America a commitment to education played an important part in colonial development of the continent. The colony of Massachusetts passed a law in 1647 requiring towns with 50 or more families to establish an elementary school and those with 100 or more families to establish Latin grammar schools for secondary-level education (see Grammar School: Latin Grammar School). Colonists in North America also valued the role of higher education. Harvard College (later renamed Harvard University) was founded in Massachusetts in 1636, and the College of William and Mary was established in Virginia in 1693. Some of the most prominent early Americans, particularly Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, and Benjamin Franklin, argued strongly for a national education system. They considered education not only a means of harnessing talent in the nation, but also a means of teaching people the demands of democratic citizenship. Not until the 20th century, however, did teachers in the United States begin to enjoy professional status.
III Teaching in the United States
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Until the late-20th century, most people in the United States and elsewhere believed that the teaching profession required mostly human-caring skills rather than a high degree of instructional expertise. Because of this perception, teachers usually received little formal preparation before entering the classroom, particularly at the elementary and secondary school levels. This perception changed in the 1970s, as schools began placing greater value on formal preparation for teachers. For example, some schools offered higher salaries to teachers with degrees in education, while other schools made teacher training a condition of employment.
A Preparation of Teachers
The landmark report A Nation at Risk, issued by the U.S. Department of Education in 1983, began an era of education reform in the United States. The report called for the development of rigorous national standards of teacher preparation. It also acknowledged that teaching had become increasingly demanding in the United States, due in part to more diverse student populations and more complex educational technologies that require additional training.
The 1996 report of the Department of Education’s National Commission on Teaching and America’s Future presented a clear program for change in teacher education. This report cited several barriers to improving teaching in the United States, such as inadequate teacher education programs; poor teacher recruitment efforts, particularly in such subjects as mathematics and science; poor administrative practices that typically saddle new teachers with the most challenging and demanding tasks; and lack of rewards for teachers who demonstrate outstanding skills and performance. To overcome these problems, the commission challenged the nation to accomplish six goals by the year 2006: (1) for all children to be taught by teachers who have the knowledge, skills, and commitment to teach children well; (2) for all teacher education programs to meet national professional standards, or else be closed; (3) for all teachers to have access to high-quality professional development; (4) for teachers and principals to be hired and retained based on their ability to meet professional standards of practice; (5) for teachers’ salaries to be based on their knowledge and skills; and (6) for high-quality teaching to be the central investment of schools, with most education funding directed toward classroom instruction.
To achieve these goals, the commission made specific recommendations. For example, it recommended that funding be made available to expand the work of the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS). Founded in the late 1980s, the NBPTS specifies levels of competency and expertise for teachers. Experienced teachers can become certified by the NBPTS only after passing a screening based on both their knowledge of academic subjects and their performance with children. This certification has afforded teachers recognition as professionals and, in many cases, has enabled them to command higher salaries. It also has helped to establish national standards for quality teaching.
B Teaching Opportunities and Salaries
Since the mid-1900s the demand for new teachers in American elementary and secondary schools has fluctuated dramatically. For example, in the late 1970s approximately one job existed for every two trained teachers in the United States; during the 1980s, however, teacher shortages developed, particularly in science, mathematics, and foreign languages. These shortages were relieved in the early 1990s, but in the mid-1990s a serious shortage of teachers recurred. Teacher shortages or surpluses may vary greatly depending on the location of the school. In general, large urban school districts experience the most severe shortages.
In 1997 public and private schools in the United States had 52.4 million students and about 3 million teachers. Experts estimate that the number of students attending American schools will increase to 55 million by 2006 and that to serve this increase adequately will require 3.4 million teachers. Experts also project a massive number of retirements within the nation’s teaching force in the early 21st century, creating a need for an unusually large number of new teachers.
Teaching traditionally has been one of the lowest-paying jobs available to college graduates. The starting salaries of public school teachers in the 1995-1996 school year averaged $24,507. The average salary of all primary and secondary school teachers was $37,643. Salaries varied widely from one school district to another and from state to state. For example, Connecticut teachers received an average salary of $50,938, while the average salary for teachers in South Dakota was just more than half of that, $26,369.
C Teacher Organizations
The National Education Association of the United States (NEA) and the American Federation of Teachers (AFT) both represent the interests of the great majority of teachers in the United States. They advocate for greater job security and better working conditions and salaries for teachers. The NEA and the AFT represent teachers in legal proceedings involving local, state, and federal governments, and have become increasingly active politically since the early 1960s. Both organizations also conduct research on education, provide teacher training, and participate in curriculum development.
D Current Issues
In the second half of the 20th century, factors including increased poverty rates, family instability, and immigration have produced the most diverse student population in U.S. history. High levels of immigration have created the need for specialized educational strategies, such as providing bilingual education to assist students who have limited proficiency in the English language. Many teachers also have had to confront such problems as overcrowded classrooms, dilapidated facilities, students suffering from malnutrition and other manifestations of poverty, increased drug and alcohol abuse among students, and reduced federal funding for education.
IV Teaching in Other Nations
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The teaching profession varies from country to country. In many countries teaching is a highly respected and prestigious profession. In Japan, for example, teachers receive significantly better salaries and benefits than do teachers in the United States. In developing nations, teachers often have prestige, but their salaries are often meager and their working conditions are generally poor. In some nations, such as Ireland and Spain, the Roman Catholic Church participates in all aspects of education, including teacher training. All countries, but particularly developing nations, lose many of their most qualified teachers to more lucrative positions in commerce and industry.
As more and more countries recognize connections between stable government, economic growth, and effective schooling, they are making education more of a national priority. Many nations model their education systems on American schools. Thousands of educators throughout Europe and many developing countries come to the United States to train as teachers and to study the American education system. Teaching, like the field of medicine, has become an international activity with practical and theoretical knowledge freely exchanged across borders.
See also Education, History of; Education in the United States; Teacher Training.
Contributed By:
Kevin Ryan, M.A., Ph.D.
Professor of Education, Boston University. Author of Those Who Can, Teach, Lenses on Teaching, and Character Development in Schools and Beyond.
Further Reading
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